Working Paper: NBER ID: w31079
Authors: Samuel Bazzi; Abel Brodeur; Martin Fiszbein; Joanne Haddad
Abstract: This paper explores how historical gender roles become entrenched as norms over the long run. In the historical United States, gender roles on the frontier looked starkly different from those in settled areas. Male-biased sex ratios led to higher marriage rates for women and lower for men. Land abundance favored higher fertility. The demands of childcare, compounded with isolation from extended family, markets, and social infrastructure, constrained female opportunities outside the home. Frontier women were less likely to report “gainful employment,” but among those who did, relatively more had high-status occupations. Together, these findings integrate contrasting narratives about frontier women—some emphasizing their entrepreneurial independence, others their prevailing domesticity. The distinctive frontier gender roles, in turn, shaped norms over the long run. Counties with greater historical frontier exposure exhibit lower female labor force participation through the 21st century. Time use data suggests this does not come with additional leisure but rather with more household work. These gender inequalities are accompanied by weaker political participation among women. While the historical frontier may have been empowering for some women, its predominant domesticity reinforced inegalitarian gender norms over the long run.
Keywords: gender norms; frontier history; female labor force participation; cultural evolution; historical gender roles
JEL Codes: J12; J13; J22; N31; N91; O15; P16
Edges that are evidenced by causal inference methods are in orange, and the rest are in light blue.
| Cause | Effect |
|---|---|
| longer communities experienced frontier conditions (N91) | more entrenched conservative gender norms (J16) |
| greater total frontier experience (F55) | lower female labor force participation (J21) |
| greater total frontier experience (F55) | higher fertility rates (J13) |
| domestic roles of women on the frontier (D13) | entrenchment of conservative gender norms (J16) |
| high fertility and limited employment (J19) | entrenchment of conservative gender norms (J16) |
| cultural imprint of gender norms (J16) | reinforcement of gender inequality (J16) |
| lack of social infrastructure and high domestic burdens (O17) | limited economic opportunities for women (J79) |
| historical frontier exposure (N21) | lower female labor force participation (J21) |