Working Paper: NBER ID: w29533
Authors: Rebecca Diamond; Enrico Moretti
Abstract: Income differences across US cities are well documented, but little is known about the level of standard of living in each city—defined as the amount of market-based consumption that residents are able to afford. We provide estimates of the standard of living by commuting zone for households in a given income or education group, and we study how they relate to local prices. By combining datasets tracking household spendings including bank and credit card transaction data of 5% of US households in 2014 and NiselenIQ data, we measure mean consumption expenditures by commuting zone and income group. To measure local prices, we build income-specific consumer price indices by commuting zone. We uncover vast geographical differences in material standard of living for a given income level. Low income residents in the most affordable commuting zone enjoy a level of consumption that is 95% higher than that of low income residents in the most expensive commuting zone. We then endogenize income and estimate the standard of living that low-skill and high-skill households can expect in each US commuting zone, accounting for geographical variation in both costs of living and expected income. We find that for college graduates, there is essentially no relationship between consumption and cost of living, suggesting that college graduates living in cities with high costs of living—including the most expensive coastal cities—enjoy a standard of living on average similar to college graduates with the same observable characteristics living in cities with low cost of living—including the least expensive Rust Belt cities. By contrast, we find a significant negative relationship between consumption and cost of living for high school graduates and high school drop-outs, indicating that expensive cities offer lower standard of living than more affordable cities. The differences are quantitatively large: High school drop-outs moving from the most to the least affordable commuting zone would experience a 18.5% decline in consumption.
Keywords: Standard of Living; Consumption; Local Prices; Geography
JEL Codes: F1; J00; R00
Edges that are evidenced by causal inference methods are in orange, and the rest are in light blue.
| Cause | Effect |
|---|---|
| Geographical affordability of commuting zones (R12) | Material standard of living for low-income households (I32) |
| Increased income in high-cost areas (J39) | Standard of living in high-cost areas for college graduates (J39) |
| High school graduates and dropouts moving from affordable to expensive zones (R23) | Standard of living (I31) |
| Increasing local prices (D49) | Standard of living for high school graduates (I21) |