Working Paper: NBER ID: w15391
Authors: Douglas Almond; Lena Edlund; Kevin Milligan
Abstract: Sex ratios at birth are above the biologically normal level in a number of Asian countries, notably India and China. Standard explanations include poverty and a cultural emphasis on male offspring. We study Asian immigrants to Canada using Census data, focussing on sex ratios across generations and religious groups. We find sex ratios to be normal at first parity, but rising with parity if there were no previous son. Since these immigrants are neither poor nor live in a society tolerant of sex discrimination/sex selection, our findings are more consistent with a preference for sons per se (and not for sons as a means to, e.g., old age support). Additionally, we uncover strong differences by religious affiliation that align with historical differences in doctrine concerning infanticide. Comparing across generations of Asian immigrants, we find fertility responds strongly to the sex composition of older children for first generation families. For the second generation, expression of son preference through the fertility channel is muted whereas sex selection seems to persist.
Keywords: Son preference; Sex selection; Asian immigrants; Canada; Census data
JEL Codes: F22; J13; J61; Z12
Edges that are evidenced by causal inference methods are in orange, and the rest are in light blue.
| Cause | Effect |
|---|---|
| previous children's sex (J13) | likelihood of having additional children (J13) |
| previous children's sex (J13) | sex of subsequent children (J12) |
| first-generation immigrants (J11) | preference for sons (J13) |
| religious affiliation (Z12) | sex ratios (J79) |
| religious prohibitions against infanticide (J13) | protect against sex selection (J79) |